Table 1 Comparison of EMI against the other TOA estimation methods under different distances and background noise

EMI SNR = 30 dB

EMI SNR = 0 dB

Lidar data [m]

\({\mu }\) [m]

\({\sigma }\) [m]

RMSE [m]

\({\mu }\) [m]

\({\sigma }\) [m]

RMSE [m]

0.83

0.8886

0.0403

0.0710

0.8856

0.0436

0.0704

1.15

1.1306

0.1274

0.1282

1.1151

0.1108

0.1156

1.51

1.4185

0.2522

0.2671

1.4288

0.2739

0.2844

2.01

1.2356

0.2772

0.8221

1.2348

0.2689

0.8201

EMR  \(M=5\ \lambda =100\) SNR = 30 dB

EMR  \(M=5\ \lambda =100\) SNR = 0 dB

Lidar data/m

\(\mu\) [m]

\(\sigma\) [m]

RMSE [m]

\(\mu\) [m]

\(\sigma\) [m]

RMSE [m]

0.83

0.8734

0.0105

0.0447

0.8703

0.0233

0.0464

1.15

1.0772

0.0252

0.0769

1.0705

0.0246

0.0831

1.51

1.4370

0.2585

0.2674

1.4541

0.2549

0.2597

2.01

1.2379

0.3434

0.8443

1.2837

0.3531

0.8067

ScLAM = 30dB

ScLAM = 0dB

Lidar data [m]

\(\mu\) [m]

\(\sigma\) [m]

RMSE [m]

\(\mu\) [m]

\(\sigma\) [m]

RMSE [m]

0.83

0.8826

0.0059

0.0709

0.8796

0.0214

0.0704

1.15

1.0977

0.0871

0.1281

1.0776

0.0395

0.1156

1.51

1.4789

0.2301

0.2670

1.5312

0.2245

0.2843

2.01

1.2658

0.3276

0.8221

1.2648

0.3197

0.8200